Promoting Healthy Ageing in Scotland

Author: Dr Erin Brown, Dr Joy Edwards-Hicks

PDF Published: Monday 26 Jan 2026 (SB 26-07)

The image shows a stacked area chart depicting projected spending, adjusted for inflation, from 2029-30 to 2069-70.The x-axis represents the years, with data points for 2029-30, 2049-50, and 2069-70.The y-axis represents the spending amounts, ranging from £0 to £160 billion.The chart is divided into two categories: Health and social care spending (purple) shows an increase over time, starting at a lower value and gradually rising as the years progress, reaching nearly £80 billion by 2069-70.Other spending (teal) starts at a higher value than health and social care spending in 2029-30 and grows to the highest amount, surpassing £100 billion by 2069-70.The two categories combine to form the total projected spending, which rises over the 40-year period.

Image: Health and social care spending will grow as a share of the budget

The image shows a bar chart illustrating healthcare costs per person by age group. The y-axis represents healthcare costs, ranging from £0 to £20,000.The x-axis represents age groups, starting from 0-1 years and continuing to 90+ years.The chart shows that healthcare costs are lowest for children in the 0-1 years group, around £5,000. As age increases, healthcare costs gradually rise, with a noticeable increase as individuals approach older age groups. By the 90+ years group, healthcare costs are the highest, reaching nearly £20,000.

Image: Health spending is higher for older age groups

The image shows a line graph illustrating the projected spending per age under two scenarios: one where the population is aging less healthily and one where the population is aging more healthily.The x-axis represents age, with the range extending to older ages on the right.The y-axis represents spending per age, with increasing values as you move upwards.There are three lines in the graph:The black line shows the general trend of spending per age, steadily increasing as people get older.The teal dashed line represents the scenario of population aging less healthily, where spending per age rises more sharply as age increases.The purple dashed line represents the scenario of population aging more healthily, where spending per age increases more gradually.The arrows indicate:Population aging less healthily (teal arrow pointing up) leads to higher spending as people age.Population aging more healthily (purple arrow pointing down) results in lower spending over time.

Image: Changes to healthy ageing can change the amount of spending needed per age

Infographic explaining how ageing works and what affects its speed. The left panel compares physiological ageing to chronological ageing, shown as a diagonal line indicating that physical ageing does not always match time passing. The middle panel shows factors that speed up ageing, including poor diet and lack of exercise, represented by a steeper upward curve. The right panel shows factors that slow ageing, including a healthy diet and regular exercise, represented by a gentler upward curve. Human silhouettes at different life stages illustrate changes over time.

Image: Biological versus Chronological Ageing

Circular infographic illustrating the hallmarks of ageing, grouped into three categories: primary, antagonistic, and integrative. In the center, silhouettes show the human life course from infancy to old age. The outer ring lists biological processes associated with ageing. Primary hallmarks include genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, loss of proteostasis, and disabled macroautophagy. Antagonistic hallmarks include deregulated nutrient sensing, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cellular senescence. Integrative hallmarks include stem cell exhaustion, altered intercellular communication, chronic inflammation, and dysbiosis. Each hallmark is represented by a simple scientific icon.

Image: 12 Hallmarks of Ageing

The image contains two sets of bar graphs comparing life expectancy and healthy life expectancy across the UK regions (England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland) for both females and males.Life expectancy at birth (2022-2024): Females: England - 83.3, UK - 83.0, Northern Ireland - 82.6, Wales - 82.1, Scotland - 81.1Males: England - 73.4, UK - 79.1, Northern Ireland - 78.8, Wales - 78.3, Scotland - 77.1Healthy life expectancy at birth (2021-2023):Females: England - 61.9, Scotland - 60.0, Wales - 59.6Males: England - 61.5, Wales - 60.3, Scotland - 59.6The bar graphs display each region's life expectancy and healthy life expectancy, with higher values represented by longer bars. Female life expectancy is consistently higher than male life expectancy across all regions, and healthy life expectancy is notably lower than total life expectancy in all cases.

Image: Life Expectancy and Healthy Life Expectancy at birth across the UK

The image displays two sets of line graphs comparing life expectancy trends for females and males across Scotland, the UK, Western European countries, and Eastern European countries from 1981 to 2021.Females:The graph shows life expectancy over time, with the lines representing different regions. The line for Scotland is consistently lower than those of the UK and Western European countries.Western European countries exhibit the highest life expectancy, with steady growth.The UK line is positioned above Scotland but below the Western European countries.Eastern European countries show the lowest life expectancy, with a slower increase over time compared to other regions.Males:Similar trends are seen in the male graph. Western European countries have the highest life expectancy, which has grown steadily.Scotland again has a lower life expectancy than the UK, with both lines gradually increasing.The line for Eastern European countries is the lowest, showing the slowest increase in life expectancy over time.The x-axis represents the years from 1981 to 2021, while the y-axis represents age, with the range extending up to 90 years.

Image: Life Expectancy at birth across European Countries, the UK, and Scotland.

The image displays a dot plot comparing life expectancy for males and females across various regions in Scotland. Each row represents a specific region, with blue dots representing males and orange dots representing females.Regions with higher life expectancy include areas like East Renfrewshire, East Dunbartonshire, Shetland Islands, where both males and females have life expectancy values closer to 80-85 years.Regions with lower life expectancy include areas such as Glasgow City, North Lanarkshire, South Lanarkshire, where males in particular have life expectancy values closer to 70-73 years, and females have slightly higher life expectancy, but still lower than in other regions.In general, females have a higher life expectancy than males across all regions, with orange dots (females) positioned further to the right of the blue dots (males) in most cases.The x-axis represents life expectancy values, ranging from 70 to 85 years.

Image: Life expectancy at birth in local authority ordered by female life expectancy - 2022-2024.

The image displays a dot plot comparing healthy life expectancy for males and females across various regions in Scotland. Each row represents a specific region, with blue squares indicating males and orange triangles representing females.Regions with higher healthy life expectancy include those like Orkney Islands, Shetland Islands, East Dunbartonshire, where both males and females have values closer to 70 years.Regions with lower healthy life expectancy include areas such as North Ayrshire, North Lanarkshire, Glasgow City, where males in particular have values closer to 50-55 years. Females also have lower healthy life expectancy in these areas, but the values are still higher than those for males.Females generally have a higher healthy life expectancy than males across all regions, as indicated by the orange triangles (females) being positioned to the right of the blue squares (males) in nearly every region.The x-axis represents healthy life expectancy values, ranging from 45 to 75 years.

Image: Healthy life expectancy at birth in local authority ordered by female healthy life expectancy - 2021-2023

The image presents two line graphs comparing life expectancy and healthy life expectancy over time (2013-15 to 2021-23) for females and males.Female Graph:The life expectancy line (blue) shows a stable trend over the years, with a slight decrease towards 2021-23. The healthy life expectancy line (orange) decreases steadily over the years.The difference between life expectancy and healthy life expectancy is 18.1 years in 2013-15 and increases to 20.8 years in 2021-23.Male Graph:The life expectancy line (blue) also shows stability with a small decrease towards 2021-23. The healthy life expectancy line (orange) declines over time.The difference between life expectancy and healthy life expectancy is 15.2 years in 2013-15 and rises to 17.2 years in 2021-23.Both graphs show a marked gap between life expectancy and healthy life expectancy, with the gap being larger for females than males.The x-axis represents time from 2013-15 to 2021-23, and the y-axis shows age, ranging from 55 to 85 years.

Image: Gender Differences in Life Expectancy and Healthy Life Expectancy

The image presents a dot plot comparing life expectancy for males and females across different levels of deprivation in Scotland, based on the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD).The x-axis represents life expectancy, ranging from 60 to 90 years.The y-axis represents deprivation categories, with 1 being the most deprived and 5 being the least deprived.Most deprived (SIMD 1): The life expectancy for males is the lowest, at around 70 years, while females have a slightly higher life expectancy at about 75 years.Less deprived (SIMD 2-4): As deprivation decreases, life expectancy for both males and females increases, reaching around 75-80 years.Least deprived (SIMD 5): The highest life expectancy is observed in the least deprived areas, with males reaching approximately 80 years and females reaching around 85 years.In general, females have higher life expectancy than males across all deprivation categories. The gap between males and females narrows as the level of deprivation decreases.

Image: Socio-economic Differences in Life Expectancy

The image displays a dot plot comparing healthy life expectancy for males and females across different levels of deprivation in Scotland, based on the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD).The x-axis represents healthy life expectancy, ranging from 45 to 75 years.The y-axis represents deprivation categories, with 1 being the most deprived and 5 being the least deprived.Most deprived (SIMD 1): The healthy life expectancy for males is the lowest, around 50 years, while females have slightly higher healthy life expectancy at about 55 years.Less deprived (SIMD 2-4): As deprivation decreases, healthy life expectancy for both males and females increases, reaching values around 60-65 years.Least deprived (SIMD 5): The highest healthy life expectancy is observed in the least deprived areas, with males at around 70 years and females at about 75 years.In general, females have higher healthy life expectancy than males across all deprivation categories. The gap between males and females narrows as the level of deprivation decreases.

Image: Socio-economic Differences in Healthy Life Expectancy

National Records of Scotland. (2022). Healthy Life Expectancy 2019-2021. Retrieved from https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/publications/healthy-life-expectancy-2019-2021/ [accessed 23 July 2025]

Centre for Ageing Better. (2023). Our Ageing Population’, in State of Ageing 2023-24.. Retrieved from https://ageing-better.org.uk/our-ageing-population-state-ageing-2023-4 [accessed 8 January 2026]

Fiscal Sustainability Report. (2025). Scottish Fiscal Commission.

Department for Work and Pensions and Department for Business and Trade . (2025). Keep Britain Working Review: Discovery. London: HM Government. . Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/keep-britain-working-review-discovery/keep-britain-working-review-discovery [accessed 8 January 2026]

Rowe , J.W. (1997). Successful aging. Gerontologist. doi: 10.1093/geront/37.4.433

Tessier , A.J. (2025). Optimal dietary patterns for healthy aging. Nat Med. doi: 10.1038/s41591-025-03570-5

Khan , S. (2017). Molecular and physiological manifestations and measurement of aging in humans.. Aging Cell. doi: 10.1111/acel.12601

Hamczyk, M. (2020). Biological Versus Chronological Aging: JACC Focus Seminar. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.11.062

Argentieri , M.A. (2025). Integrating the environmental and genetic architectures of aging and mortality. Nat Med. doi: 10.1038/s41591-024-03483-9

Teschendorff , A.E. (2025). Epigenetic ageing clocks: statistical methods and emerging computational challenges. Nat Rev Genet.. doi: 10.1038/s41576-024-00807-w

Shen, X. (2024). Nonlinear dynamics of multi-omics profiles during human aging. Nat Aging. doi: 10.1038/s43587-024-00692-2

Horvath, S. (2013). DNA methylation age of human tissues and cell types. Genome Biol. doi: 10.1186/gb-2013-14-10-r115

Hannum, G. (2013). Genome-wide methylation profiles reveal quantitative views of human aging rates.. Mol. Cell. doi: 10.1016/j.molcel.2012.10.016

Rutledge, J. (2022). Measuring biological age using omics data. Nature Reviews Genetics. doi: 10.1038/s41576-022-00511-7

Horvath, S. (2018). DNA methylation-based biomarkers and the epigenetic clock theory of ageing. Nat. Rev. Genet. doi: 10.1038/s41576-018-0004-3

Waziry , R. (2023). Effect of long-term caloric restriction on DNA methylation measures of biological aging in healthy adults from the CALERIE trial. . Nat Aging. doi: 10.1038/s43587-023-00432-y

Yaskolka Meir, A. (2023). The effect of polyphenols on DNA methylation-assessed biological age attenuation: the DIRECT PLUS randomized controlled trial. . BMC Med. doi: 10.1186/s12916-023-03067-3

Ammous , F. (2025). Physical Activity Is Associated With Decreased Epigenetic Aging: Findings From the Health and Retirement Study. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. doi: 10.1002/jcsm.13873

Nagata, M. (2024). Influence of physical activity on the epigenetic clock: evidence from a Japanese cross-sectional study.. Clin Epigenetics. doi: 10.1186/s13148-024-01756-1

Coronel-Oliveros, C. (2025). Creative experiences and brain clocks. Nat Commun. doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-64173-9

Fahy , G.M. (2019). Reversal of epigenetic aging and immunosenescent trends in humans. . Aging Cell. doi: 10.1111/acel.13028

Srour, L. (2025). Deep aging clocks: AI-powered strategies for biological age estimation. Ageing Research Reviews. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2025.102889

Haugg , F. (2025). Imaging biomarkers of ageing: a review of artificial intelligence-based approaches for age estimation. Lancet Healthy Longev. doi: 10.1016/j.lanhl.2025.100728

Kroemer, G. (2025). From geroscience to precision geromedicine: Understanding and managing aging. Cell. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.03.011

López-Otín, C. (2023). Hallmarks of aging: An expanding universe. Cell. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.11.001

Plaza-Diaz, J. (2022). Impact of Physical Activity and Exercise on the Epigenome in Skeletal Muscle and Effects on Systemic Metabolism. Biomedicines. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10010126

Joehanes, R. (2016). Epigenetic Signatures of Cigarette Smoking. Circulation: Cardiovascular Genetics. doi: 10.1161/circgenetics.116.001506

Herzog, C. (2024). Cigarette smoking and e-cigarette use induce shared DNA methylation changes linked to carcinogenesis. Cancer Research. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-23-2957

Hipp , M.S. (2019). The Proteostasis Network and Its Decline in Ageing. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. doi: 10.1038/s41580-019-0101-y

Lehtonen, . (2019). Dysfunction of Cellular Proteostasis in Parkinson’s Disease. Frontiers in Neuroscience. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00457

Feng, Y. (2013). The machinery of macroautophagy. Cell Research. doi: 10.1038/cr.2013.168

Littlewood, K. (2025). Metabolic dysfunction over a life course key to healthy ageing inequality. Aging Clin Exp Res. doi: 10.1007/s40520-025-03034-3

Costantino, S. (2019). GLP-1-based therapies to boost autophagy in cardiometabolic patients: From experimental evidence to clinical trials. . Vascular Pharmacology. doi: 10.1016/j.vph.2019.03.003

Efeyan, . (2015). Nutrient-sensing mechanisms and pathways. Nature. doi: 10.1038/nature14190

Johnson, . (2018). Nutrient Sensing, Signaling and Ageing: The Role of IGF-1 and mTOR in Ageing and Age-Related Disease. Sub-cellular biochemistry. doi: 10.1007/978-981-13-2835-0_3

Hotamisligil, G.S. (2008). Nutrient sensing and inflammation in metabolic diseases. Nature Reviews Immunology. doi: 10.1038/nri2449

Mannick, J.B. (2021). Targeting the biology of ageing with mTOR inhibitors to improve immune function in older adults: phase 2b and phase 3 randomised trials. Lancet Healthy Longev. doi: 10.1016/S2666-7568(21)00062-3

Mannick, J.B. (2018). TORC1 inhibition enhances immune function and reduces infections in the elderly. Sci. Transl. Med. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aaq1564

Lawrence, H. (2022). Impact of social deprivation on clinical outcomes of adults hospitalised with community-acquired pneumonia in England: a retrospective cohort study. BMJ Open Respir Res.. doi: 10.1136/bmjresp-2022-001318

Zong, Y. (2024). Mitochondrial dysfunction: Mechanisms and Advances in Therapy.. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. doi: 10.1038/s41392-024-01839-8

Desdin-Mico, G. (2020). T cells with dysfunctional mitochondria induce multimorbidity and premature senescence. Science. doi: 10.1126/science.aax0860

Huang, W. (2022). Cellular senescence: the good, the bad and the unknown. . Nature Reviews Nephrology. doi: 10.1038/s41581-022-00601-z

Coppe, J.P. (2008). Senescence-associated secretory phenotypes reveal cell-nonautonomous functions of oncogenic RAS and the p53 tumor suppressor.. PLOS Biol. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0060301

Poliwoda, S. (2022). Stem cells: a Comprehensive Review of Origins and Emerging Clinical Roles in Medical Practice. Orthopedic Reviews. doi: 10.52965/001c.37498

Lawton, A. (2024). Running on empty: Exploring stem cell exhaustion in geriatric musculoskeletal disease. Maturitas . doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2024.108066

Liu, M. (2017). Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells from the Elderly Exhibit Decreased Migration and Differentiation Abilities with Senescent Properties. . Cell Transplantation,. doi: 10.1177/0963689717721221

Li, X. (2023). Inflammation and aging: signaling pathways and intervention therapies. . Sig Transduct Target Ther . doi: 10.1038/s41392-023-01502-8

McDonald, D. (2018). American Gut: an Open Platform for Citizen Science Microbiome Research.. mSystems. doi: 10.1128/msystems.00031-18

Shen, Y. (2025). Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis: Pathogenesis, Diseases, Prevention, and Therapy.. MedComm. doi: 10.1002/mco2.70168

Claesson , M.J. (2012). Gut microbiota composition correlates with diet and health in the elderly. Nature. doi: 10.1038/nature11319

Johnstone, A. (2025). Consensus statement on exploring the Nexus between nutrition, brain health and dementia prevention. Nutr Metab (Lond). doi: 10.1186/s12986-025-00981-6

Quan, W. (2022). Association of dietary meat consumption habits with neurodegenerative cognitive impairment: an updated systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of 24 prospective cohort studies.. Food & Function. doi: 10.1039/d2fo03168j

Franz, C. (2010). The Extracellular Matrix at a Glance. Journal of Cell Science. doi: 10.1242/jcs.023820

Fafian-Labora, J.A. (2020). Classical and Nonclassical Intercellular Communication in Senescence and Ageing. . Trends in Cell Biology. doi: 10.1016/j.tcb.2020.05.003

Selman, M. (2021). Fibroageing: An ageing pathological feature driven by dysregulated extracellular matrix-cell mechanobiology. Ageing Research Reviews. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2021.101393

Kwon, K.Y. (2026). How social isolation accelerates biological aging: Exploring underlying behavioral and psychological mechanisms. Social Science & Medicine. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118874

Steptoe, A. (2013). Social Isolation, Loneliness, and All-Cause Mortality in Older Men and Women.. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1219686110

Fagan, A. (2024). A qualitative exploration of the lives lived by Irish centenarians. Journal of Aging Studies. doi: 10.1016/j.jaging.2024.101252

World Health Organisation. (2025, October). Ageing and health. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health [accessed 5 January 2026]

The Royal Society. (2024). Increasing healthy life expectancy: the policy implications of geroscience. Retrieved from https://royalsociety.org/news-resources/publications/2024/increasing-healthy-life-expectancy/ [accessed 5 January 2026]

Rodríguez-Mañas, L. (2023). Good nutrition across the lifespan is foundational for healthy aging and sustainable development.. Frontiers in Nutrition. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1113060

Shannon, O.M. (2021). Mediterranean diet and the hallmarks of ageing. Eur J Clin Nutr . doi: 10.1038/s41430-020-00841-x

Mikkila , V. (2005). Consistent dietary patterns identified from childhood to adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. . Br J Nutr. doi: 10.1079/bjn20051418

World Health Organization . (2019). Commercial Foods for Infants and Young Children in the WHO European Region. A Study of the Availability, Composition and Marketing of Baby Foods in Four European Countries. . Retrieved from https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/9789289057783 [accessed 27 December 2025]

Assmann, K.E. (2018). Association between adherence to the Mediterranean diet at midlife and healthy aging in a cohort of French adults.. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci..

Gopinath, B. (2016). Adherence to dietary guidelines and successful aging over 10 years. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. .

Leij-Halfwerk, S. (2019). Prevalence of protein-energy malnutrition risk in European older adults in community, residential and hospital settings, according to 22 malnutrition screening tools validated for use in adults =65 years: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Maturitas .. doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2019.05.006.

Dent, E. (2023). Malnutrition in older adults. The Lancet. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02612-5

Lorenzo-López, L. (2017). Nutritional determinants of frailty in older adults: a systematic review.. BMC Geriatr. . doi: 10.1186/s12877-017-0496-2.

Food Train. (2025). Eat Well Age Well. Retrieved from https://thefoodtrain.co.uk/eat-well-age-well/ [accessed 27 December 2025]

Correa-Burrows , P. (2025). Long-Term Obesity and Biological Aging in Young Adults. . JAMA Netw Open. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.20011

Salvestrini, V. (2019). Obesity may accelerate the aging process. . Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). doi: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00266

Tam, B.T. (2020). Obesity and ageing: two sides of the same coin. . Obes Rev. doi: 10.1111/obr.12991

Marinac, C.R. (2019). Rising cancer incidence in younger adults: is obesity to blame? . Lancet Public Health. doi: 10.1016/S2468-2667(19)30017-9

Cizza, G. (2012). Rising incidence and challenges of childhood diabetes: a mini review. . J Endocrinol Invest. .

Ragusa, F.S. (2025). Weight of time: exploring the link between obesity and aging.. Aging Clin Exp Res. doi: 10.1007/s40520-025-03106-4

Qiu, Y. (2025). Exercise attenuates the hallmarks of aging: Novel perspectives. J Sport Health Sci. doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2025.101108

Public Health Scotland. (2024). Estimating the burden of disease attributable to physical inactivity in Scotland. [accessed 29 December 2025]

Scottish Household Survey 2022: Key Findings.. (2022). Retrieved from https://www.gov.scot/publications/scottish-household-survey-2022-key-findings/ [accessed 29 December 2025]

Scottish Parliament. (2023). Initial response from the Minister for Social Care, Mental Wellbeing, and Sport to the Health, Social Care, and Sport Committee's inquiry report into female participation in sport and physical activity.. Retrieved from https://www.parliament.scot/-/media/files/committees/health-social-care-and-sport-committee/correspondence/2023/female-participation-in-sport-initial-response.pdf [accessed 29 December 2025]

Hamaya, R. (2025). Association between frequency of meeting daily step thresholds and all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease in older women. British Journal of Sports Medicine. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2025-110311

Ungvari, Z. (2023). The multifaceted benefits of walking for healthy aging: from blue zones to molecular mechanisms.. GeroScience . doi: 10.1007/s11357-023-00873-8

Hirvensalo , M. (2011). Life-course perspective for physical activity and sports participation. . European Review of Aging and Physical Activity.. doi: 10.1007/s11556-010-0076-3

Skelton, D. (2018). How do muscle and bone strengthening and balance activities (MBSBA) vary across the life course, and are there particular ages where MBSBA are most important?. J Frailty Sarcopenia Falls.. doi: 10.22540/JFSF-03-074

Montero-Fernandez, N. (2013). Role of exercise on sarcopenia in the elderly.. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med.

Young, A. (1994). Applied physiology of strength and power in old age. . Int J Sports Med.. doi: doi: 10.1055/s-2007-1021037

Skelton, D. (1999). Exercise for falls management:Rationale for an exercise programme aimed at reducing postural instability.. Physiotherapy Theory &Practice. .

Davidson, R. (2023). Ageing, sport and physical activity participation in Scotland. Front Sports Act Living. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1213924

National Institute of Aging. (2022). Healthy Aging Tips for the Older Adults in Your Life. Retrieved from https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/caregiving/healthy-aging-tips-older-adults-your-life#prevent-social-isolation-and-loneliness [accessed 3 January 2026]

Campaign to End Loneliness. (2024). Health impact. Retrieved from https://www.campaigntoendloneliness.org/health-impact/ [accessed 3 January 2026]

Meisters, R. (2021). Does Loneliness Have a Cost? A Population-Wide Study of the Association Between Loneliness and Healthcare Expenditure. Int J Public Health .. doi: 10.3389/ijph.2021.581286

World Health Organisation. (2022). Reducing social isolation and loneliness among older people. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/activities/reducing-social-isolation-and-loneliness-among-older-people [accessed 3 January 2026]

Scottish Government. (2023). Recovering our connections 2023-2026. Retrieved from https://befriending.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/recovering-connections-2023-2026.pdf [accessed 3 January 2026]

Lindsay-Smith, G. (2018). A mixed methods case study exploring the impact of membership of a multi-activity, multicentre community group on social wellbeing of older adults.. BMC Geriatr. . doi: 10.1186/s12877-018-0913-1.

Shvedko, A. (2018). Physical Activity Intervention for Loneliness (PAIL) in community-dwelling older adults: protocol for a feasibility study. Pilot Feasibility Stud.. doi: 10.1186/s40814-018-0379-0

Research Excellence Framework. (2021). Retrieved from https://2021. ref.ac.uk/ [accessed 27 December 2025]

Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. (1998). Lancet.

Bannister, C.A. (2014). Can people with type 2 diabetes live longer than those without? A comparison of mortality in people initiated with metformin or sulphonylurea monotherapy and matched, non-diabetic controls. Diabetes Obes. Metab.

Campbell, J.M. (2017). Metformin reduces all-cause mortality and diseases of ageing independent of its effect on diabetes control: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Research Reviews.

King, P. (1999). The UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS): clinical and therapeutic implications for type 2 diabetes. Br J Clin Pharmacol.

Yang, Y. (2024). Metformin decelerates aging clock in male monkeys. Cell. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2024.08.021

Chavda, V.P. (2024). Unlocking longevity with GLP-1: A key to turn back the clock?. Maturitas. doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2024.108028

Moiz, A. (2025). Efficacy and Safety of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists for Weight Loss Among Adults Without Diabetes : A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Ann Intern Med. doi: 10.7326/ANNALS-24-01590

Colhoun , H.M. (2024). Long-term kidney outcomes of semaglutide in obesity and cardiovascular disease in the SELECT trial.. Nat Med. doi: 10.1038/s41591-024-03015-5

Edison, P. (2025). Liraglutide in mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease: a phase 2b clinical trial. Nature Medicine. doi: phase 2b clinical trial

Prado, C.M. (2024). Muscle matters: the effects of medically induced weight loss on skeletal muscle. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology . doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00272-9

Wilding , J. (2022). Weight regain and cardiometabolic effects after withdrawal of semaglutide: the STEP 1 trial extension.. Diabetes Obes Metab. . doi: 10.1111/dom.14725

West, J. (2026). Weight regain after cessation of medication for weight management: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2025-085304

The expanding role of GLP-1 receptor agonists: a narrative review of current evidence and future directions. (2025). eClinicalMedicine. doi: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2025.103363

Medicines & Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. (2025, August 20). GLP-1 medicines for weight loss and diabetes: what you need to know. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/glp-1-medicines-for-weight-loss-and-diabetes-what-you-need-to-know/glp-1-medicines-for-weight-loss-and-diabetes-what-you-need-to-know [accessed 11 November 2025]

Arai, Y. (2015). Inflammation, but not telomere length, predicts successful ageing at extreme old age: a longitudinal study of semi-supercentenarians.. EBioMedicine . doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2015.07.029

Sayed, N. (2021). An inflammatory aging clock (iAge) based on deep learning tracks multimorbidity, immunosenescence, frailty and cardiovascular aging. . Nat. Aging . doi: 10.1038/s43587-021-00082-y

Campisi , J. (2019). From discoveries in ageing research to therapeutics for healthy ageing.. Nature. doi: 10.1038/s41586-019-1365-2

ClinicalTrials.gov. (2025). An Open-Label Intervention Trial to Reduce Senescence and Improve Frailty in Adult Survivors of Childhood Cancer. Retrieved from https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04733534 [accessed 5 January 2026]

Raffaele , M. (2022). The costs and benefits of senotherapeutics for human health. Lancet Healthy Longev. doi: 10.1016/S2666-7568(21)00300-7

Ellison-Hughes, G.M. (2020). First evidence that senolytics are effective at decreasing senescent cells in humans. EBioMedicine. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.09.05

Saliev, T. (2025). Targeting Senescence: A Review of Senolytics and Senomorphics in Anti-Aging Interventions. Biomolecules. doi: 10.3390/biom15060860

Last Updated: 8/6 12:33pm

An error occured while loading, please try again in a few minutes.