Scotland's water industry: overview of regulation and key challenges

Author: Dr Elizabeth Lawson, Damon Davies

PDF Published: Tuesday 28 Oct 2025 (SB 25-52)

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Overview
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Overview
Report
- Executive Summary
- 1. Background
  - 1.1 Why water policy matters in Scotland
  - 1.2 A brief history of Scotland's water sector
- 2. Policy Framework: Scotland's Hydro-Nation
- 3. Managing Scotland's water resources
- 4. Public water and wastewater services
  - 4.1 Who oversees Scotland's public water sector
  - 4.2 Planning and funding water investment: the regulatory period
  - 4.3 Scottish Water: structure, role and accountability
    
    4.3.1 How public water services are funded
    
    4.3.2 Economic regulation
    
    4.3.3 Public drinking water supplies
    
    4.3.4 Public wastewater treatment
    
    4.3.5 Domestic customer charges
    
    4.3.6 Non-domestic customers
    
    4.3.7 Pipework responsibilities
- 5.0 Private water supplies and wastewater treatment
  - 5.1 Private drinking water supplies
  - 5.2 Private wastewater treatment
    
    5.2.1 Septic tanks
    
    5.2.2 Regulation of private sewage systems
    
    5.2.3 Connecting to the public network
- 6.0 Key challenges for Scotland's water sector
  - 6.1 Climate change and water resilience
    
    6.1.1 Rainwater drainage and blue-green infrastructure
    
    6.1.2 Catchment management
  - 6.2 Water scarcity
    
    6.2.1 Reducing water consumption
    
    6.2.2 Hosepipe bans and other emergency measures
  - 6.3 Sewage pollution
    
    6.3.1 Impact on water bodies
    
    6.3.2 Sewage overflows
    
    6.3.3 Sewer flooding
    
    6.3.4 Historic and untreated sewage outfalls
  - 6.4 Emerging pollution risks: forever chemicals, microplastics and more
  - 6.5 Keeping pace with EU law
- Annex A: Key legislation
- Annex B: SEPA Environmental Pollution Event Categories (Water)
Sources

An infographic illustrating the major pressures affecting Scotland's water sector. Each pressure is represented with an icon or illustration and labelled accordingly. The key pressures shown include: Land use and catchment management, Pollution from industry and emerging contaminants, Water sector emissions reduction (Net Zero), Water abstraction, Resilience of rural and island drinking water supply and wastewater treatment, Increased water demand due to development, Urban surface water runoff, Domestic water management (consumption and drainage), Extreme weather events (drought and flooding), Flood management, Bathing water quality, Impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity, Wastewater (sewage) treatment, Water scarcity, Groundwater, The infographic visually communicates the interconnected environmental, infrastructural, and societal challenges facing Scotland's water systems.

Image: Figure 13: Key pressures on Scotland's water sector

Timeline infographic showing key events in the development of Scotland's water industry. These key events are described in the main text.

Image: Figure 1: Key events in the evolution of Scotland's water sector

This diagram shows a structural flow chart depicting regulators and their relationship to Scottish Water, the Scottish Government and the Scottish Parliament. Roles of these key regulators are described in Table 1 below.

Image: Figure 2: Regulatory responsibilities of public authorities in Scotland's water sector

Flow chart depicting the organisational structure of Scottish Water and its subsidiaries. Scottish Water is at the top of the diagram with Scottish Water Horizons Holdings Ltd below. Below that the diagram branches into two separate strands. On the right is Scottish Water Horizons Ltd. To the left is Scottish Water Business Stream Holdings Ltd and below that Scottish Water Business Stream Ltd.

Image: Figure 3: Organisational structure of Scottish Water and its subsidiaries

A choropleth map of Scotland showing the number of private water supplies per 1,000 dwellings across Scottish Parliament constituencies. Constituencies are shaded in varying intensities of purple to indicate the density of private water supplies: Dark purple: 13.36 to 57.52 supplies per 1,000 dwellings, Medium dark purple: 2.13 to 13.36, Medium light purple: 0.46 to 2.13, Light purple: 0.06 to 0.46, Very light purple: 0.02 to 0.06, White: Zero private water supplies. The top five constituencies with the highest number of private water supplies per 1,000 dwellings are: Argyll and Bute – 57.52, Skye, Lochaber and Badenoch – 44.37, Perthshire North – 33.07, Galloway and West Dumfries – 31.07, Ettrick, Roxburgh and Berwickshire – 26.57. The map highlights regional disparities in reliance on private water supplies across Scotland.

Image: Figure 9: Number of private water supplies per 1,000 dwellings by Scottish Parliament constituency.

A table-style chart comparing compliance rates with legal drinking water quality standards for Coliform Bacteria and E. coli across three types of water supplies in Scotland—Scottish Water consumer taps, Type B private water supplies, and Regulated private water supplies—from 2021 to 2023. Scottish Water Consumer Taps: Coliform Bacteria: 99.83% (2021), 99.74% (2022), 99.75% (2023) E. coli: 99.99% (2021), 99.97% (2022), 99.97% (2023) Type B Private Water Supplies: Coliform Bacteria: 66.7% (2021), 75.0% (2022), 66.6% (2023)E. coli: 83.8% (2021), 86.4% (2022), 82.1% (2023) Regulated Private Water Supplies: Coliform Bacteria: 76.9% (2021), 66.3% (2022), 78.8% (2023) E. coli: 87% (2021), 84% (2022), 89% (2023) The chart highlights consistently high compliance for Scottish Water consumer taps and poorer performance for private water supplies, especially Type B.

Image: Figure 10: Private Water supply compliance rates with legal drinking water quality standards.

A map of Scotland showing average water scarcity across river catchment areas from 1991 to 2024. Areas are shaded in varying tones of pink, with darker shades indicating higher average water scarcity. Four rivers with the highest average levels of water scarcity are labelled on the map: River Deveron. Firth of Forth. River Tyne. River Almond.

Image: Figure 15: Map of average water scarcity by river catchment areas from 1991 to 2024.

A bar chart illustrating Scottish Water's financial breakdown for the fiscal year 2024/25, divided into three sections: Funding, Expenditure, and Cash. Funding (Total just under £2.0 billion) of which: Customer charges: £1.5 billion Net new borrowing: £170 million, Utilisation of cash balances: £144 million, Other sources: £20 million, Expenditure (Total £1.9 billion): Regulated operating costs: £511 million, Regulated investment: £815 million, Responsive repair & refurbishment: £277 million, PFI charges and interest: each £169 million, Cash: Group subsidiaries £136 million, Regulated business cash £133 million.

Image: Figure 4: Scottish Water's regulated revenue and expenditure 2024/25

A diagram outlining the roles and responsibilities of six public bodies involved in the strategic review process of Scottish Water: Consumer Scotland – Advises the Scottish Government on consumer policy issues. Scottish Government – Develops policy and sets the Principles of Charging and Objectives for the water industry. Drinking Water Quality Regulator – Advises the Government on water quality standards and reviews Scottish Water's Investment Plan. Scottish Water – Prepares a Business Plan and Investment Plan aligned with Ministerial Objectives and Principles of Charging. Water Industry Commission for Scotland – Reviews Scottish Water's Business and Investment Plans and sets price caps. Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) – Advises the Government on environmental standards and reviews Scottish Water's Investment Plan. The diagram visually maps how each body contributes to the strategic review process, emphasising advisory, planning, and regulatory roles.

Image: Figure 5: Roles and responsibilities of public bodies in the strategic review process.

A quadrant diagram illustrating the possible trade-offs in Scottish Water's investment strategy, based on combinations of customer charges and borrowing levels. The center of the diagram reads: "Current and future customers pay equal share of investment." Top-left quadrant (High borrowing, Low customer charges): "Future customers pay higher share of investment." Top-right quadrant (High borrowing, High customer charges): "Too much cash, reduced incentives for efficiency." Bottom-left quadrant (Low borrowing, Low customer charges): "Not enough cash, investment not delivered." Bottom-right quadrant (Low borrowing, High customer charges): "Current customers pay higher share of investment." The diagram visually communicates the balance needed to ensure fair and efficient investment funding between current and future customers.

Image: Figure 6: conceptual diagram summarising the challenges of balancing Scottish Water investment between customer charges and borrowing

A line graph showing the trend in average unmetered household combined water and sewerage charges in Scotland from 2007/08 to 2025/26. The vertical axis represents cost in pounds (£), ranging from £200 to £500. The horizontal axis spans fiscal years from 2007/08 to 2025/26. Purple line (Cash terms): Starts around £300 in 2007/08 and rises steadily, with a sharper increase after 2020, reaching approximately £450 by 2025/26. Yellow line (Real terms, adjusted to October 2006 prices): Begins slightly above £300, dips slightly, fluctuates, and ends below its starting point, showing a modest increase toward 2025/26. The graph contrasts nominal and inflation-adjusted charges, emphasising the impact of inflation on household water and sewerage costs over time.

Image: Figure 7. Average unmetered household combined water and sewerage charges in Scotland in cash and real terms 2007/08 to 2025/26

A vertical bar chart showing the year-to-year average real terms percentage change in unmetered household combined water and sewerage bills in Scotland from 2008/09 to 2025/26. The y-axis ranges from -4% to +8%, and the x-axis lists fiscal years. Bars are coloured purple. In 2008/09, the change is around +2%. From 2009/10 to 2013/14, the changes are mostly negative, with a sharp dip near -4% around 2011. Between 2014/15 and 2022/23, changes fluctuate slightly between positive and negative. From 2023/24 onward, there is a steep upward trend, peaking at nearly +7% in 2025/26. The chart highlights variability in year-to-year changes in real terms charges.

Image: Figure 8: Annual average real terms year-on-year change (per cent) in unmetered household combined water and sewerage bills in Scotland 2007/08 to 2025/26.

A cross-sectional diagram of a basic septic tank system used for private sewage treatment. The tank features: Inlet pipe on the left side, where wastewater enters the tank. Outlet pipe on the right side, where treated water exits. Interior layers showing: A top layer of wastewater. A bottom layer of settled solids. Inspection port at the top center of the tank, used for maintenance access. The diagram visually explains the flow and separation of waste within a septic tank system.

Image: Figure 11: Example illustration of a simple septic tank private sewage system.

A choropleth map of Scotland showing the number of septic tanks per 1,000 dwellings across Scottish Parliament constituencies. Constituencies are shaded in varying intensities of purple to represent septic tank density: Darkest purple: 65.62 to 518 septic tanks per 1,000 dwellings. Medium-dark purple: 17.51 to 65.61. Medium-light purple: 4.61 to 17.50. Lightest purple: 0.76 to 4.60. Very light purple: 0 to 0.76. The top five constituencies with the highest septic tank density are: Argyll and Bute – 518. Orkney Islands – 343. Na h-Eileanan an Iar – 223. Skye, Lochaber and Badenoch – 219. Caithness, Sutherland and Ross – 187. The map highlights regional variations in the use of septic tanks across Scotland.

Image: Figure 12: Estimated number of septic tanks per 1,000 dwellings by Scottish Parliament constituency.

A diagram showing components of a Sustainable Drainage System (SuDS) around a house. Key features include: Water butt collecting rainwater from the roof. Green roof absorbing rainfall. Underground filter treating excess water before it enters the storm drain. Kerbside bioswales channelling and filtering runoff. Retention pond storing water temporarily. Permeable paving allowing water to soak into the ground. The system illustrates how SuDS elements work together to manage rainwater sustainably, reduce flood risk, and improve water quality by mimicking natural drainage.

Image: Figure 14: Illustrative example of SuDS systems

A vertical bar chart comparing average daily water consumption (in litres) across Scotland, selected UK nations, and European countries with similar climates. The countries are listed from highest to lowest consumption: Norway: 189 litres. Scotland: 180 litres. England and Wales: 144 litres. Netherlands: 133 litres. Germany: 126 litres. Ireland: 125 litres. Denmark: 109 litres. Belgium: 85 litres. The chart highlights that Scotland has one of the highest average daily water consumption rates among the listed countries.

Image: Figure 16: Average daily water consumption in Scotland compared to selected UK and European countries with a similar climate.

Two line graphs showing trends in environmental pollution incidents linked to wastewater treatment in Scotland from 2010/11 to 2024/25. Left graph: Tracks Category 1 and 2 incidents (major or significant pollution). Starts at approximately 30 incidents in 2010/11. Declines sharply to below 5 incidents by 2015/16. Remains low with slight fluctuations, ending around 5 incidents in 2024/25. Right graph: Tracks Category 3 incidents (minor pollution). Begins at around 800 incidents in 2010/11. Drops steeply over time. Reaches below 100 incidents by 2024/25. The graphs illustrate a significant reduction in both major and minor pollution incidents over the 15-year period.

Image: Figure 17: Environmental Pollution Incidents associated with wastewater treatment 2010/11 to 2024/25.

A line graph showing the number of sewer flooding incidents in Scotland from 2015/16 to 2023/24. The y-axis ranges from 0 to 150 incidents, and the x-axis covers fiscal years from 2015/16 to 2023/24. The graph includes two lines: Purple line: Represents total flooding incidents. Starts low in 2015/16. Gradually increases from 2017/18. Peaks sharply around 2020/21 at approximately 140 incidents. Declines steeply by 2022/23 and then levels off. Yellow line: Represents flooding incidents due to severe weather. Begins rising around 2018/19. Peaks around 2020/21 at just over 60 incidents. Declines steadily through to 2023/24.

Image: Figure 18: Incidents of sewer flooding 2015/16 to 2023/24

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