Blue Carbon

Author: Roxana T. Shafiee

PDF Published: Tuesday 23 Mar 2021 (SB 21-19)

Compiled photographic images of coastal blue carbon habitats (including saltmarshes, sand dunes and machair) and biological blue carbon habitats (kelp beds, a phytoplankton bloom, seagrass beds, a cold-water coral reef and maerl beds).

Image: Figure 1. Coastal and living, biological blue carbon habitats found in Scotland

Photographic images of a Scottish Sea Loch and a sea bed

Image: Figure 2. Geological blue carbon stores found in Scotland

Plots showing carbon stores (as megatonnes carbon dioxide equivalent) in different biological blue carbon habitats and geological carbon stores, and rates of carbon sequestration by the different stores/habitats.

Image: Figure 3. Total carbon stored and sequestered annually by Scotland's biological and geological blue carbon habitats and stores

Bar charts showing the proportion of Scotland's blue carbon which is in geological stores (99.84%) versus carbon in biological habitats and species (0.16%). Inset bar chart shows the proportion of carbon in biological habitats which is biogenic reef carbon storage (0.5 megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent).

Image: Figure 13. Biogenic reefs carbon storage and sequestration at a glance

Compiled photographic images of biogenic reef forming habitats in Scotland including, flame shell beds, cold-water corals, horse mussel beds, blue mussel beds, tubeworm/serpulid reefs, brittlestar beds.

Image: Figure 14. Biogenic reef-forming habitats found in Scotland's seas

Map of Scotland and Scotland's seas showing points where records of biogenic reefs (cold-water corals, blue mussel beds, horse mussel beds, flame shell beds, serpulid reefs) have been observed in the Geodatabase of Marine features adjacent to Scotland (GeMS) (V9i25).

Image: Figure 15. Records of biogenic reef-forming habitats in Scotland's seas (excluding Maerl beds)

Image: Figure 24. Seafloor carbon storage and sequestration at a glance

Image: Figure 4. Saltmarsh carbon storage and sequestration at a glance

Photographic image of saltmarsh flats at the end of Upper Loch Torridon, observed from the National Trust for Scotland wildlife hide

Image: Figure 5. Saltmarsh flats at the end of Upper Loch Torridon, observed from the National Trust for Scotland wildlife hide

Image: Figure 6. Sand dune carbon storage and sequestration at a glance

Photographic image of mobile sand dune in Forvie Nature Reserve

Image: Figure 7. Forvie National Nature Reserve Mobile Sand Dunes

Image: Figure 8. Machair carbon storage and sequestration at a glance

Photographic image of wildflowers on a machair on Berneray, Outer Hebrides

Image: Figure 9. Wildflowers on a machair on Berneray, Outer Hebrides

Image: Figure 10. Seagrass carbon storage and sequestration at a glance

Map of Scotland showing points where records of seagrass beds have been observed in the Geodatabase of Marine features adjacent to Scotland (GeMS) (V9i25).

Image: Figure 11. Records of Seagrass in Scotland's seas

Photographic image of pipefish in seagrass reeds

Image: Figure 12. Pipefish in seagrass bed

Image: Figure 16. Maerl beds carbon storage and sequestration at a glance

Map of Scotland showing points where records of maerl and maerl beds have been observed in the Geodatabase of Marine features adjacent to Scotland (GeMS) (V9i25).

Image: Figure 17. Records of maerl and maerl beds found in Scotland's seas

Photographic image of pink-purple maerl bed on coarse gravel

Image: Figure 18. Maerl bed of the species Phymatolithon calcareum on gravel

Pie chart showing, out of all biological habitats, the proportion which is sequestered annually by phytoplankton. This is alongside statement which reads 'rapid turnover of phytoplankton biomass precludes accurate assessment [of carbon storage]'.

Image: Figure 19. Phytoplankton carbon storage and sequestration at a glance

Photographic image of green phytoplankton cells under high magnification and a satellite image of a phytoplankton bloom off the east coast of Scotland.

Image: Figure 20. Phytoplankton under the microscope (left) and a phytoplankton bloom off the east coast of Scotland (right)

Image: Figure 21. Kelp carbon storage and sequestration at a glance

Map of Scotland showing points where records of kelp beds and kelp and seaweeds on sublittoral sediment have been observed in the Geodatabase of Marine features adjacent to Scotland (GeMS) (V9i25).

Image: Figure 22. Records of kelp and seaweed communities on sublittoral sediment and kelp beds in Scotland's seas

Photographic image of seal nestled within a kelp bed

Image: Figure 23. Seal nestled in a kelp forest

Map of Scotland and Scotland's seas showing the density distribution of inorganic carbon, with greatest densities (greater than 6 kg per cubic metre inorganic carbon) shown to the north east of Scotland, to the west of the Hebrides and on the western edge of Scotland's Adjacent Waters.

Image: Figure 25. Distribution of inorganic carbon (shown by density, in kg/m3) in seafloor sediments in Scotland's Seas

Map of Scotland and Scotland's seas showing the density distribution of organic carbon, with greatest densities (greater than 0.9 kg per cubic metre organic carbon) shown in the inshore regions of the western coast.

Image: Figure 26. Distribution of organic Carbon (shown by density, in kg/m3) in seafloor sediments in Scotland's Seas

Bar graphs showing the contribution of inorganic carbon and organic carbon to seafloor sediment carbon storage and carbon sequestration. Pie chart of the proportion of organic carbon sequestration that is kelp derived (31.6%) and phytoplankton derived (68.4%).

Image: Figure 27. Organic and inorganic carbon storage and sequestration in Scotland's seafloor sediments, and the contribution of phytoplankton and kelp to seafloor sediment organic carbon sequestration

Image: Figure 28. Sea loch sediments carbon storage and sequestration at a glance

Figure showing the contribution of seafloor sediments (99.7%) and sea loch sediments (0.3%) to Scotland's total blue carbon storage. Bar plots showing that compositional makeup of the carbon in these stores, showing that sealoch sediments have a greater proportion of organic carbon (42%) compared with seafloor sediments (14%).

Image: Figure 29. Contribution of seafloor sediments and sea loch sediments to the total carbon storage in Scotland's seas.

Infographic showing the carbon stored and annually sequestered (in megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per year) in Scotland's blue carbon, split into biological habitats and marine sediments, and Scotland's terrestrial carbon, split into forestry, peatland and non-peatland soils. This is shown alongside Scotland's annual greenhouse gas emissions.

Image: Figure 30. Comparison of blue carbon storage and sequestration with terrestrial carbon, and Scotland's greenhouse gas emissions.

Bar graph showing the range of carbon sequestration rates (on a per unit basis, measured in grams of carbon dioxide equivalent per meter square per year) in blue carbon biological habitats, sea loch sediments, seafloor sediments (inshore and offshore), forestry and restored peatland.

Image: Figure 31. Range of carbon sequestration rates per unit area, of blue carbon and terrestrial carbon stores and habitats

Infographic depicting the key threats to Scotland's blue carbon habitats and stores, categorised into: physical disturbances to habitats, climate change and changes in land management and land use change.

Image: Figure 32. Key threats to Scotland's blue carbon habitats and stores

Photographic image of mechanical kelp harvesting machinery

Image: Figure 33. Mechanical kelp harvesting

Schematic images of types of two types of mobile-fishing equipment - demersal trawl and scallop dredge

Image: Figure 34. Types of mobile-fishing equipment - demersal trawl (left) and scallop dredge (right)

Figure showing disturbance to Scotland's seafloor within Scotland's Extended Economic Zone, assessed through a disturbance scores 0 (no sensitivity data, shown in grey) - 9 (maximum disturbance, shown in navy).Figure shows greatest disturbance scores of 9 in Offshore regions of Fladen and Moray Firth. No data shown for Hatton region.

Image: Figure 35. Disturbance to Scotland's seafloor, assessed through a disturbance scores 0 (no sensitivity data, shown in grey) - 9 (maximum disturbance, shown in navy).

Map of Scotland showing inshore regions with restrictions or bans to trawling and/or dredging

Image: Figure 36. Regions in Scotland's seas with restrictions (line filled) or bans (solid fill) to trawling and/or dredging

Two maps of Scotland showing organic carbon densities (measured in kg per cubic metre) in and not in areas with banned or restricted bottom-towed fishing.

Image: Figure 37. Organic carbon density (kg/m3) in regions with restrictions or bans on bottom-towed fishing (left) and in regions without restrictions on bottom-towed fishing (right).

Map of Scotland's seas showing Priority Marine Features (PMFs) in areas where bottom-towed fishing is restricted in green, and in areas where trawling/dredging is not restricted in red. Alongside is an inset map, with a higher resolution showing the type of PMFs which are not in region with restrictions/bans on bottom-towed fishing - indicating that a high proportion of kelp beds are in regions without restrictions on bottom-towed fishing.

Image: Figure 38. Priority Marine Features (PMFs) in areas where bottom-towed fishing is restricted (green) and in areas where trawling/dredging is not restricted (red).

Schematic image showing the effect of sea level rise on saltmarshes in coastal regions without seawalls (saltmarsh habitat migrates inland) and with sea walls (seawall prevents saltmarsh from migrating inland leading to a contraction of the area of saltmarsh known as 'coastal squeeze').

Image: Figure 39. The effect of built sea defences of saltmarsh migration, through coastal squeeze

Diagram showing the key acts empowering Scottish Ministers to protect blue carbon species and habitats, on the basis of their contributions to Scotland's biodiversity

Image: Figure 40. Key Acts protecting blue carbon's biodiversity contributions

Diagram showing the current protection, and opportunities for protection, of listed blue carbon species/habitats under the Marine Acts (UK Marine & Coastal Access Act 2009 and Marine (Scotland) Act 2010).

Image: Figure 41. Current protection, and opportunities for protection, of blue carbon species and habitats under the Marine Acts.

Map of Scottish Adjacent waters showing regions designated as Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas and Special Areas of Conservation (SACs).

Image: Figure 42. Scotland's Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) within Scottish adjacent waters.

Timeline of the international commitments made by Scotland to protect biodiversity, showing Ramsar Convention of Wetlands (1971), OSPAR convention (1992), Convention on Biological Diversity (Aichi 2010 targets) and UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) - 'Life Below Water' (2015).

Image: Figure 46. Scotland's key international commitments to protecting biodiversity

Diagram showing blue carbon features that can be used to designate Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas (Under the Marine Acts) and Special Areas of Conservation (Under the Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994).

Image: Figure 43. Blue carbon features that can be used to designate Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas (Under the Marine Acts) and Special Areas of Conservation (Under the Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994). Grey boxes indicate the powers with the Acts, dashed lines indicate the habitats/species currently protected within some MPAs.

Map of Scotland showing the Marine Protected Areas and Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) wherein a blue carbon feature is protected, either as a conservation priority or a conservation and restoration priority.

Image: Figure 44. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) with a designated feature that is a blue carbon habitat/species. Biogenic reefs are the protected feature in all SACs.

Map of South Arran Marine Protected Area, showing regions where all fishing is prohibited, demsersal trawl and dredging is prohibited, demersal, dredge and creels prohibited, dredge prohibited and demersal trawl only permitted subject to conditions.

Image: Figure 45. South Arran Marine Protected Area, showing restrictions to fishing activities

Map of the North-East Atlantic showing the five OSPAR regions.

Image: Figure 47. OSPAR Marine Regions

Image depicting the 17 UN sustainable development goals

Image: Figure 48. UN sustainable development goals

Diagram showing sections of the Marine Acts which require regard to climate change mitigation and adaptation, highlighting that no MPAs are currently designated solely on the basis of "regard to the extent to which MPA will contribute to the mitigation of Climate Change"

Image: Figure 49. Sections of the Marine Acts which require regard to climate change mitigation and adaptation

Diagram showing the plans and programmes required by the Climate Change Acts, showing the regard to which the CCP must consider carbon storage when designating MPAs under the Marine Scotland Act.

Image: Figure 50. Plans and Programmes required by the Climate Change Acts, showing that the CCP must set out policies and proposals to consider carbon storage when designating MPAs under the Marine Scotland Act (shown on the left). Grey boxes indicate the requirements set out in the Acts. Dashed line and blue text indicates the consideration of blue carbon in the CCP and the CCPu.

Schematic image depicting the preliminary principles underpinning Nature-based solutions, including ecosystem approaches (protection,issue-specific,infrastructure,management and restoration) to societal challenges, leading to human well-being and biodiversity benefits.

Image: Figure 51. Preliminary principles underpinning Nature-based solutions

Photographic image of a restored saltmarsh in Eden Estuary

Image: Figure 52. Restored saltmarsh in Eden Estuary

Schematic image depicting examples of proposed geoengineering strategies, separated into Radiation Management (RM - Space mirrors, reflective aerosols, cloud seeding) and Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR - iron fertilisation, alkalinity addition, artificial upwelling, direct injection of carbon into rocks, biochar afforestation)

Image: Figure 53. Proposed geoengineering strategies

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